Mixed evidence
Thymosin alpha 1 and orexin signaling: a proposed brain-immune axis
Clinical biomarker observations were combined with genetic and experimental stroke models to examine a proposed neuronal receptor interaction.
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Preclinical study
Thymosin alpha 1 in CD8 cells: activation and exhaustion markers
Cultured human CD8 cells were exposed to thymosin alpha 1 alone or with receptor stimulation; repeated stimulation modeled an exhausted phenotype.
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Thymosin alpha 1 in liver failure: an open-label randomized study
Seventy-three patients with hepatitis-B-related acute-on-chronic liver failure received standard care with or without thymosin alpha 1.
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Thymosin beta 4 in acute kidney injury: MAPK pathway experiments
Mouse and cultured kidney-cell models used an inflammatory challenge, transcriptomics and a pharmacological pathway intervention.
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Tirzepatide and macrophage signaling in experimental fatty liver
A diet-induced mouse model was combined with macrophage cultures, conditioned-medium experiments and Dectin-1 knockdown.
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Tirzepatide in a kidney-clinic cohort: association versus causation
A nephrology clinic followed sixty-two adults with chronic kidney disease, diabetes and obesity after tirzepatide was prescribed in routine care.
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Tirzepatide, PRKN and microvascular injury: an unresolved mechanism
Diabetic mouse models and stressed human cardiac endothelial cells were examined, including partial PRKN silencing and lysosomal blockade.
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TRIUMPH-2: separating diabetes and obesity trial endpoints
A randomized placebo-controlled phase 3 study examined retatrutide in adults with both obesity and type 2 diabetes.
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BPC-157 after limb ischemia: distant-organ injury measurements
Rats underwent limb ischemia and short reperfusion, after which liver, kidney and lung tissues were examined.
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Elamipretide in cryopreservation: higher concentration was not better
Rooster sperm samples were frozen in defined extender formulations and evaluated after thawing across several elamipretide concentrations.
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Epitalon in normal and cancer cells: telomere pathways differ
A 2025 cell study distinguished telomerase changes from alternative telomere-lengthening activity.
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ESSENCE interim analysis: liver histology and long-term outcomes are different
The planned phase 3 interim report examined biopsy outcomes at 72 weeks.
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